Researchers who want to bridge the divide between biology and technology spend a lot of time thinking about translating between the two different 鈥渓anguages鈥� of those realms.
鈥淥ur digital technology operates through a series of electronic on-off switches that control the flow of current and voltage,鈥� said , a research scientist at the 黑料吃瓜网. 鈥淏ut our bodies operate on chemistry. In our brains, neurons propagate signals electrochemically, by moving ions 鈥� charged atoms or molecules 鈥� not electrons.鈥�
Implantable devices from pacemakers to glucose monitors rely on components that can speak both languages and bridge that gap. Among those components are OECTs 鈥� or organic electrochemical transistors 鈥� which allow current to flow in devices like implantable biosensors. But scientists long knew about a quirk of OECTs that no one could explain: When an OECT is switched on, there is a lag before current reaches the desired operational level. When switched off, there is no lag. Current drops almost immediately.
A 黑料吃瓜网-led study has solved this lagging mystery, and in the process paved the way to custom-tailored OECTs for a growing list of applications in biosensing, brain-inspired computation and beyond.
鈥淗ow fast you can switch a transistor is important for almost any application,鈥� said project leader , a 黑料吃瓜网 professor of chemistry, chief scientist at the 黑料吃瓜网 Clean Energy Institute and faculty member in the 黑料吃瓜网 Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute. 鈥淪cientists have recognized the unusual switching behavior of OECTs, but we never knew its cause 鈥� until now.鈥�
In a published April 17 in Nature Materials, Ginger鈥檚 team at the 黑料吃瓜网 鈥� along with Professor at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology in Japan and Professor at Zhejiang University in China 鈥� report that OECTs turn on via a two-step process, which causes the lag. But they appear to turn off through a simpler one-step process.
In principle, OECTs operate like transistors in electronics: When switched on, they allow the flow of electrical current. When switched off, they block it. But OECTs operate by coupling the flow of ions with the flow of electrons, which makes them interesting routes for interfacing with chemistry and biology.
The new study illuminates the two steps OECTs go through when switched on. First, a wavefront of ions races across the transistor. Then, more charge-bearing particles invade the transistor鈥檚 flexible structure, causing it to swell slightly and bringing current up to operational levels. In contrast, the team discovered that deactivation is a one-step process: Levels of charged chemicals simply drop uniformly across the transistor, quickly interrupting the flow of current.
Knowing the lag鈥檚 cause should help scientists design new generations of OECTs for a wider set of applications.
鈥淭here鈥檚 always been this drive in technology development to make components faster, more reliable and more efficient,鈥� Ginger said. 鈥淵et, the 鈥榬ules鈥� for how OECTs behave haven鈥檛 been well understood. A driving force in this work is to learn them and apply them to future research and development efforts.鈥�
Whether they reside within devices to measure blood glucose or brain activity, OECTs are largely made up of flexible, organic semiconducting polymers 鈥� repeating units of complex, carbon-rich compounds 鈥� and operate immersed in liquids containing salts and other chemicals. For this project, the team studied OECTs that change color in response to electrical charge. The polymer materials were synthesized by Luscombe鈥檚 team at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology and Li鈥檚 at Zhejiang University, and then fabricated into transistors by 黑料吃瓜网 doctoral students Jiajie Guo and Shinya 鈥淓merson鈥� Chen, who are co-lead authors on the paper.
鈥淎 challenge in the materials design for OECTs lies in creating a substance that facilitates effective ion transport and retains electronic conductivity,鈥� said Luscombe, who is also a 黑料吃瓜网 affiliate professor of chemistry and of materials science and engineering. 鈥淭he ion transport requires a flexible material, whereas ensuring high electronic conductivity typically necessitates a more rigid structure, posing a dilemma in the development of such materials.鈥�
Guo and Chen observed under a microscope 鈥� and recorded with a smartphone camera 鈥� precisely what happens when the custom-built OECTs are switched on and off. It showed clearly that a two-step chemical process lies at the heart of the OECT activation lag.
Past research, including by Ginger鈥檚 group at the 黑料吃瓜网, demonstrated that polymer structure, especially its flexibility, is important to how OECTs function. These devices operate in fluid-filled environments containing chemical salts and other biological compounds, which are more bulky compared to the electronic underpinnings of our digital devices.
The new study goes further by more directly linking OECT structure and performance. The team found that the degree of activation lag should vary based on what material the OECT is made of, such as whether its polymers are more ordered or more randomly arranged, according to Giridharagopal. Future research could explore how to reduce or lengthen the lag times, which for OECTs in the current study were fractions of a second.
鈥淒epending on the type of device you鈥檙e trying to build, you could tailor composition, fluid, salts, charge carriers and other parameters to suit your needs,鈥� said Giridharagopal.
OECTs aren鈥檛 just used in biosensing. They are also used to study nerve impulses in muscles, as well as forms of computing to create artificial neural networks and understand how our brains store and retrieve information. These widely divergent applications necessitate building new generations of OECTs with specialized features, including ramp-up and ramp-down times, according to Ginger.
鈥淣ow that we鈥檙e learning the steps needed to realize those applications, development can really accelerate,鈥� said Ginger.
Guo is now a postdoctoral researcher at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Chen is now a scientist at Analog Devices. Other co-authors on the paper are , a former 黑料吃瓜网 postdoctoral researcher in chemistry who is now an assistant professor at the University of Utah; Jonathan Onorato, a 黑料吃瓜网 doctoral alum and scientist at Exponent; and Kangrong Yan and Ziqui Shen of Zhejiang University. The research was funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, and polymers developed at Zhejiang University were funded by the National Science Foundation of China.
For more information contact Ginger at dginger@uw.edu, Luscombe at christine.luscombe@oist.jp and Giridharagopal at rgiri@uw.edu.